Arrival of Irishmen to Work under Philip Duffy Essay

Arrival of Irishmen to Work under Philip Duffy - Essay Example This discrimination along with a lot of other reasons, economic and social should have prevented the journey of fifty-seven Irish laborers to the United States of America to assist in the construction of a railroad by an American contractor named Philip Duffy. All of them succumbed to death by cholera; recent evidence indicates that many of them may have been murdered (O’ Carroll). Most of them were not granted proper funerals, an event which highlighted the low esteem in which people of Ireland and Catholic nations, in general, were held, in the early nineteenth century. These forms of discrimination along with the spread of Asiatic cholera, a disease which had turned into a pandemic affecting large areas of Europe and America in the 1830s and the subsequent decades, was reason enough for the laborers to not have gone to the United States of America. A lasting cure for this was found out later on (Thomas), but the condition of cheap labor in America would have been the reason for anybody to be cautious. Proper medical facilities were not provided to this man and their lives were often at the risk of being taken by cholera. The condition of the Irish laborers in America was often worse than that of the slaves in America since their wages hardly sufficed for them to afford decent lodgings and good food (Watson, 32). This, along with the threat of disease, meant that the journey to the United States of America was fraught with danger for the Irishmen who worked for Duffy and they undertook it with great peril to their health and eventually, their lives. This alone should have deterred them from their journey to America. The journey that was undertaken by these people should not have materialized, if they had considered the immense risks that it involved, to their lives. The socio-political concerns of the American state were not humanitarian enough to provide safety to these laborers. During this phase, the United States of America, along with other states in Europe, were engaged in improving the state of infrastructure in their countries. Therefore, the safety and well-being of their workers, poor Catholic immigrants at that, was not of primary importance to the American state. It is probably because of this reason that enough payments were not made to Duffy for the building of the railroad that was assigned to him, a part of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad. In a situation where he did not have sufficient resources, it is believed that he chose to let the laborers bear the brunt of the lack of money, that is, to place them in circumstances that were more likely to push them into being victims of cholera, which they eventually did (ibid, 65). The 1830s was also the decade which saw a raging debate in England regarding the reform bills that were to give more rights to the Catholics of Ireland. This created a polarizing effect in other parts of the world, especially in America, which still was close, politically to England (Robe rts, 689-90). This led to the prejudices against the Catholics to deepen and take a more aggressive turn.

In support of the legalization of marijuana for medical use Essay

In support of the legalization of marijuana for medical use - Essay Example Medically, the drug has been effectual in treating various diseases as discussed by Jocelyn Elders, the former U.S surgeon in her article, Myths about Medical Marijuana 2004. Still, this research is affirmed by Mathre (8) who in his article outline how the drug kindle appetite and lessen cachexia, alleviate vomiting and nausea linked with cancer chemotherapy, reduce intraocular pressure, and treat analgesia and neurological along with movement disorders. Unlike many drugs prescribed in the market, marijuana does not cause a terminal overdose. No one dies out of overdose due to its therapeutic applications such as decrease of spasms, muscles, chronic pain, and intraocular heaviness. Still, the CDC does not have a category of death by marijuana unlike other drugs approved by the FDA. Deaths have been noted as a result of legal drugs despite having the FDA approval. Although there are perilous effects of smoking marijuana, it has been approved medically to treat some ailments. This pape r seeks to discuss all these issues in detail in support of the legalization of marijuana for medical use. Joycelyn Elders (1) highlights the medical benefits of using marijuana. Her insights are awesome on how the drug relieves pains, reduces vomiting along with other symptoms of chronic diseases. Marijuana does this safely as it is less toxic than other drugs prescribed by physicians. Joycelyn focused her argument on the medical benefits of using the drug in which she believed that it improves the overall quality of patient’s life. From her argument, marijuana is best known to reduce neuropathic or chronic pain. The effect is important to HIV patients who often suffer from such pain and the drug becomes effective in pain reduction. Secondly, marijuana is beneficial in increasing appetite as it stimulates the body’s metabolism. The drug is effectual in reducing the symptoms of chronic diseases such as HIV and cancer as patients lack

Issues Affecting The Transition Of High School Students

Issues Affecting The Transition Of High School Students Individuals experience changes that impact the various stages of and experiences in their lives. Transition from high school to post school activities is one such change experienced by students with disabilities, including higher education and/or employment. The author of this literature presents an overview of the issues affecting the transition of students with disabilities. Specifically, it brings to attention the impact of cultural and linguistic diversity on the transition process, as well as the positive effect of self determination, collaboration with service providers, and family intervention have on the transition process. Overall, findings support that when correctly administered with proper planning, the transition process is beneficial to students with disabilities. Issues Affecting the Transition of High School Students with Disabilities: A Review of the Literature Introduction Transition is the movement from one place, status, or situation to the next. Transition is dynamic and is a constant aspect of life, requiring the necessary fine-tuning to address life changes (Wehman, 1992). As life progresses, individuals encounter various sets of transitions (Harrington, 1982). For transition to be considered successful, the individual must experience improved confidence and competence in skills (Wehman, 1992). For individuals with disabilities, the period of transition from the school system to post school activities represents a pivotal junction in their lives and will require careful planning and specialized services. Students with disabilities are provided educational rights by the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), with its main focus being to ensure that all children with disabilities are presented with free appropriate education that emphasizes special education and related services that is intended to meet their special needs and to prepare them for further education, employment and independent living (US Department of Education, 2010). When appropriately implemented, IDEA propels the education and subsequent transition process of students with disabilities into functional post school outcomes (McDonnell, McDonnell Hardman, 2003). The successful post school, independent functioning of students with disabilities is heavily dependent on the transition process. Built into the transition process is the actual planning for transition. In assisting the students to achieve the full benefits of the transition process and to be able to use the skills learned in school to be successful at independent living, the goals, needs, preferences and aptitude of the student with disabilities must form the foundation of the students transition planning process. Families, school districts, and communities collectively bear the responsibilities to successfully guide a student through the transition process (Wehman, 1992). The successful execution of the plan is squarely placed on school districts as theirs are the responsibilities of educating the students (Wehman, 1992). Transition Planning Transition planning is an important aspect of the education of the student with disabilities, and should be treated accordingly. A transition plan that will have lasting effect on the student takes into consideration post school educational prospects, such as training that will result in eligibility of entry to community college, universities, or employment at the completion of high school. There are also other significant factors such as post-adult living, independent living skills, and community experiences. Transition planning is done as a team effort. For students to realize the full benefits of what IDEA offers, and to successfully transition to post school activities, their course of study requires specific planning and programing. Transition services specifically deal with maximizing the academic and functional abilities of the student. Transition services are those coordinated set of activities for a student with disabilities that will result in the desired educational objectives (Flexor, Baer, Luft Simmons, 2008). An important role of the transition process is to increase success, self-worth, and confidence in an individual while taking the students needs, strengths and preferences in mind (Flexor et al, 2008). The members of the transition team should include the students, teachers, members of the family, school administration, and members of the local education agency. These are considered to be the core members of the team. Vocational rehabilitation counselors, related service providers, adult service providers, post school education program representatives, and other professionals with expertise in a specific disability or disabilities are also influential members of the team. The selection of the entire team is to be collaborative in nature, with all members being fully mindful of the student and the specific disability that the student is experiencing. At best, all individuals who interact with the students as far as transition planning is concerned must be well-informed and conversant with the students Individualized Education Program (IEP). Students with Disabilities as a High Risk Group for Successful Transition to Post High School Activities Osgood, Foster and Courtney (2010) point out that the manner in which an adolescent transition to adulthood has significant implications over the long haul. For example, whereas gaining a college degree makes it possible to achieve a higher-paying and more respectable job; early parenthood, failed marriage for a young person or becoming involved in criminal conduct or substance abuse can have negative outcomes in the areas of finances, family relationships and other important areas of life. It has been found, for example, that high school graduates or dropouts who do not attend college have significantly lower prospects of achieving a successful and satisfying life during adulthood than those youths who are college-bound (Bloom, 2010; Osgood, et al, 2010). Bloom (2010) observes that a recent study done in New York City identified young people with disabilities, including young people with learning disabilities or emotional and behavioral problems, as one of five significant groups of young people who are at significantly high risk of leaving school, not returning, and then ending up unemployed or out of the labor force (p.94). Cortiella (2009) reports that the Presidents Commission on Excellence in Special Education reported in 2004 that unemployment for adult individuals with disabilities have stayed at around 70% for the prior 12 years. Young people with disabilities transitioning from high school were found to be at relatively the same risk for failure in pursuing post school activities as immigrant youths, young people involved in the justice system, youth aging out of foster care and young mothers (Bloom, 2010). According to Osgood, Foster and Courtney (2010), given the fact that the years from high school into the early twenties represent a difficult period of transition for the general population in the U.S. and other developed nations, this time is particularly arduous for vulnerable youths, including those emerging from the special education system. In addition problems affecting the general population that require many young adults to depend on their parents for much longer, individuals with disabilities tend to face . . .exceptional challenges finding employment, attending college, and marrying and starting a family. Many struggle with emotional or behavioral problems; many of histories of problems in school and in the community. Often their families are unable or unwilling to provide the support that most families provide to their children during this transition-funding for college, child care that permits work or schooling for young parents, a place to live when times are hard. Some of these young adults are hampered by limited capacities and difficulty acquiring skills. The day-to-day tasks of achieving financial and residential independence can be daunting because of physical disabilities, chronic illness, or mental illness. (Osgood, Foster Courtney, 2010, p.211) At the same time, vulnerable populations experience greater challenges to transition into adulthood than other youths often because they have to deal with tasks that youths their age do not have to face. For example, a youth who has physical disability has to engage in the arrangement of medical services or assistive devices and it may require extra burden to achieve a college degree or have a successful romantic relationship that blossoms into marriage. Furthermore, youths with disabilities leaving high school may have limited ability to accomplish everyday tasks. Physical disabilities, for example, may result in reduced strength and range of motion whereas impaired learning and cognitive abilities can make it more challenge to earn a college degree and the kinds of professions that would lead to independent living without the need for special assistance. In addition, adolescents with mental illness and behavioral problems can experience problems meeting the expectations of employer s, friends and romantic partners. Because children with disabilities can require considerable parental time and resources and have behavioral problems that negatively affect the parent-child relationship, parents and families sometimes lack the energy and desire to assist these youths, making it more difficult and longer for youths with disabilities to succeed in the post high school world (Osgood, Foster Courtney, 2010). Consequently, the literature supports the need for effective transition services for post high school activities among youths with disabilities (Sabbatino Macrine, 2007). It is found for example, that vulnerable groups do poorly at completing high school and obtaining postsecondary education which is of vital importance to succeeding occupationally and financially in todays economy. It has been reported that youths with more than one disabilities have a one in twelve chance of successfully completing a higher education. Compared with 69 percent of other youths who attain full-time employment with three to five years of completing high school, only 57 percent of youth from special education gain full-time employment in this time period. Compared with 72 percent of individuals with mild disabilities and 79 percent of the general population, only 39 percent of youths aged 18 to 30 with serious disabilities are in the workforce. Only about 32% of all persons with disability between the work-age of 18-64 years are employed, compared to 81% of people without disabilities. Limited education and employment among youths with disabilities have daunting consequences for their living circumstances. Problems include strong likelihood of living below the poverty line, difficulty paying bills and meeting the experiences of daily living, strong dependence on public assistance and high rates of early parenthood. For example, about 50% of young women with learning disabilities or emotional problems become mothers with three to five years of finishing high school compared with only about one-third for the general population. Compared to national unemployment rate of about 6%, unemployment rate for individuals with disabilities is around 40-70%. In the area of independent living, 65-75% of persons with disabilities have not achieved independent living status. About 25% of young women with health heath issues have unplanned pregnancies when compared with under 10 percent of the ge neral population (Sabbatino Macrine, 2007; Osgood, Foster Courtney, 2010). Systemic Failures in Transition Planning as an Underlying Issue Affecting Successful Post School Outcomes In 2004, the IDEA was amended particularly to improve postsecondary outcomes for students with disabilities. The revisions were based on the Presidents Commission on Excellence in Special Educations finding that problems affecting high school graduates with disabilities such as significant unemployment and significant amounts of students leaving school without a diploma compared to the general population, are the result of failures in the present systems structures (Cortiella, 2009, p.1). Particularly, the Commission felt that high school graduates face barriers to smooth transition to adult living because of failures in transition planning (Sabbatino Macrine, 2007; Cortiella, 2009). Four areas of improvement were highlighted: better definition, clear starting point, improved planning and a new performance summary. The term Transition Services were redefined as activities aimed specifically on improving the academic and functional achievement of the child to facilitate movement from post-school activities (Florida Department of Education, 2005). Continued education and transition services were mandated to be provided for young people with disabilities for four years beyond the traditional time of graduation from high school. Furthermore, the definition was extended to require that services are based on the strengths, preferences and interests of the child with a result-oriented focus (Sabbatino Macrine, 2007). The IDEA (2004) also provides a clearer starting point in terms of the age where transition planning should begin, identifying 14-16 as an effecting age range. Improved planning involves the addition of measurable postsecondary goals regarding training, education, employment and independent living skills where necessary; as well as a development of a statement in the IEP about transition services necessary to help the student achieve these goals. The new performance measures include a requirement by schools to evaluate special education services before terminating them when the child graduates as well as a summary of performance including the childs academic achievement and functional performance upon leaving high school (Rutkowski, Daston, Kuiken Riehle, 2006; Sabbatino Macrine, 2007; Corteilla, 2009). Factors Contributing to Successful Transition Resilience or the ability to quickly recover from stressful events and problems determine how successful high school students with disabilities are able to transition to post high school activities. The resources that contribute to resilience come in many forms, from individuals skills and personality, to supportive relationships with other people, the involvement in groups like churches and clubs (Osgood, Foster Courtney, 2010, p.218). However, the most important factors identified by research as keys to promoting successful transition to adulthood among high school graduates with disabilities are success at school, support from family and friends, and healthy interpersonal relationships (Osgood et al, 2010) The good news is that special education services as with foster care, have programs in place to ensure the successful transition of individuals with disabilities to adulthood. In addition to providing support for individuals with disabilities, health and special education systems specifically address the needs of individuals with disabilities by providing access to specialized services that target particular needs of young people. However, to ensure that the transition from high school to adult life is successful for individuals with disabilities, it is important to begin early transition planning (Florida Department of Education, 2005). Florida Department of Education Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services (2005) defines transition planning as the process of focusing on the plans and dreams parents and their children with disabilities have for the future. The function of transition planning is to provide youths with disabilities with the services and supports he or she needs to make a successful move into adult life (p.5). The school plays a fundamental role in transition planning, which typically begins at age 14 through to time of graduation from high school, but may occur earlier to hedge problems such as dropping out of school or to get an early start for children with significant disabilities. In general, transition planning should occur for all students with disabilities who have an IEP. In addition to being part of the IEP process, transition planning should involve all individuals and agencies identified by the transition IEP team, including the student, the family, and school staff. Students and Parents In order to be successful, transition planning must involve the full participation and contribution of each transition team member. Each student must actively participate in the transition planning process, particularly in helping to decide what he or she wants to do after leaving school. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004 stresses the importance of students being involved in the transition process. For example, it added a new requirement that transition services designed to coordinate various activities that are provided to students with disabilities by the schools and other agencies to help them successfully transition from high school to postsecondary education, employment and independent living; to consider the students interests, preferences and strengths. Identification of the students strengths enables the transition team to identify goals that highlight and build on the students abilities rather than on what the child cannot do (Cortiella, 2005). Students have various responsibilities in ensuring the success of the transition planning process. These include taking an active role in the development of the Transition IEP, becoming knowledgeable about the transition process, thinking about the kinds of services that would help him/her in their adult life in order to help the transition team invite the appropriate agencies to attend the Transition IEP meeting, working with guidance counselors and career counselors to identify courses and school experiences that will promote their desired post high school activities, becoming knowledgeable about their disabilities and how to gain access to services and supports to enhance his/her long term goals, attending class, acquiring self-determination and self-advocacy skills, learning how to use assistive technology and how to save money for post school activities (Florida Department of Education, 2005). Parents play an invaluable role in the transition process. In fact, parental involvement is considered one of the most important factors in how successful the youths transition will be from high school to post high school life. Parental responsibilities in the transition process include playing an active role by asking questions and making suggestions, reviewing their childs Transition IEP goals, reviewing graduation requirements, providing opportunities for their child to explore post high school options such as employment, career centers, community colleges, community service, recreation and leisure, etc.; helping their child with their post school outcome statement, and helping their child develop a portfolio of personal informational medical and psychological testing, learning style, class rank, grade point average (GPA), honors, awards, work experiences, etc. (Florida Department of Education, 2005). Dunlap (2009) indicates that it is important for parents and professionals to work together to meet their childrens needs because it serves as a reinforcement of the program goals and objectives. Parents can contribute valuable information about their child and about the family unit. They know many things about their child that others initially are unlikely to know, including the childs strengths and weaknesses, likes and dislikes and medical history (p.92). This is a valid assessment. Children with special needs present many challenges for educators. Therefore, it is important for teachers to be aware of their global functioning in order to best meet their needs. The best way to achieve this goal is through parent-teacher collaboration. Furthermore, when parents stay in contact with professionals they also learn strategies and techniques that they can implement at home to enhance their childrens success. In addition, parents and their children can provide important information about the students goals for adult life, the strengths and resources of the family, extended family and the community, the services needed by the family and the services and providers that have helped the family in the past (Florida Department of Education, 2005). Sabbatino and Macrine (2007) indicate that the process of including students and their parents in the transition planning process provides students and their parents opportunities to look to the future, voice preferences, express concerns and desires, and share in decision making that directly affects each students future (p.34). Olsen and Fuller (2008) point out that parent involvement may take a variety of forms and levels of involvement, both in and out of school. It includes activities that are provided and encouraged by the school and that empower parents in working on behalf of their childrens learning and development (p.128). Olsen and Fuller (2008) identify six types of parental involvement, including (1) basic responsibilities of families, which involves providing health, security, shelter and other basic necessities for their children; (2) communication, or the sharing of information and ongoing two-way interaction between parents and children; (3) volunteering or providing advocacy help to educators and administrators for programs aimed at helping children with homework or other needs; (4) Learning at home, which involves managing childrens time with television and homework and ensuring that they build positive attitudes about education; (5) Decision making, which involves partnering with the schoo l to solve problems and shape goals and policies affecting the lives of their children; and (6) Collaborating with the community (i.e., small businesses, religious communities, cultural groups, government agencies, etc.) to identify resources to enhance childrens ability to learn and develop (Olsen Fuller, 2008). According to the research, parent involvement in the lives of their children with special needs is beneficial not only for the children and the parents themselves, but for educators and the school. In sum, research shows that when parents and schools support and encourage the development of children it benefits the children in numerous ways, including helping children to achieve more regardless of the racial/ethnic, socioeconomic status or educational level of the parents; help children to get better attendance, test scores and grades; result in greater consistency with children completing their homework. Other benefits for children include better self-esteem, less discipline problems, and higher motivation for school. Benefits for parents include greater responsiveness and sensitivity to the social, emotional and intellectual needs of their children; more confidence in their parenting and decision making skills, greater affection for their children, and greater awareness of policies affecting the education and future development of their children (Olsen Fuller, 2008). Transition Services: Getting Students Ready for Productive Work Work experience during high school has been identified in the literature as a strong predictor of successful employment outcomes for young people with disabilities (Carter et al, 2010). Furthermore, it has been reported that people with disabilities are offered jobs at a lower rate that the general population. The reality is that many students with social, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, or developmental disabilities find that their educational experience in todays schools did not equip them with the skills necessary to leading self-determined, independent lives (Sabbatino Macrine, 2007, p.33). In fact, a central goal of education for students in general is to ensure the successful transition from school to work. Without a well-defined transition program, students with disabilities leave high school unprepared to become productive workers and, as a result, become unemployed Transition services represent an important part of transition planning. The overarching goal of transition services is to help the student successfully move from school to post school activities or to successfully transition to adult life. Before the child turns 16, the transition team (also called the Transition IEP team) involves parents, the young person and teachers. After age sixteen, the team may involve representatives of agencies who provide or pay for the services given to the young person. Post school activities coordinated by transition services to help the youth move into adult life include access to college or university programs, continuing and adult education, vocational training, employment, independent living, community participation and the coordination of adult services from different agencies. The IDEA requires the transition services to development include a statement in the IEP about the transitional service needs of the student, with a focus on the courses of s tudy the study will engage in do achieve his or her post school goals; and a statement in the IEP about the students transitional service needs when the student turns 16. The transition services must also be based on the individual needs of the young person, their likes and interests as well as necessary activities regarding instruction related services, community experiences, employment, post-school adult living skills, daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation (Florida Department of Education, 2005; Rutkowski, Daston, Kuiken Riehle, 2006). Rutkowski, Daston, Kuiken and Riehle (2006) identify four commonly used special education models for transition services: traditional classroom model, work-study model, transition-to-community model and the adapted career and technical model. In the traditional classroom model, students in segregated special education classrooms are taught employability skills. In the work-study model, classroom instruction is combined with actual work experience, with the students participating mainly in food or custodial service related jobs for a few hours a day. In the transition-to-community model, students are prepared for independent living, which includes developing social skills and participating in job-shadowing experiences and workplace observation. In the adapted career and technical model students are taught work skills and ethics in a simulated work site. School-to-Work Transitions According to Carter et al (2010), preparation for the world of work has long been a central focus of transition education (p.194). Estrada-Hernandez et al (2008) observe that when counseling professions measure the career outcomes of persons with disabilities, they do so by assessing their employment outcomes in the competitive labor market. The assumption is that positive independent living outcomes for individuals with disabilities are positively correlated to successful community employment and the empowerment it provides the individual. The successful movement from education to employment is crucial for establishing independence among young adults with disabilities (Shandra Hogan, 2008, p.117). Baugher and Nichols (2008) point out, however, that preparing special education students to leave high school and enter the world of work or post-secondary education can be a difficult task (p.216). This may explain the reality that while coordinated transition services combined with comm unity work experience plays a vital role in ensuring successful school-to-work transitions for young people with disabilities, and despite of the fact that federal law requires transition assistance, these services are inconsistently available (Rutkowski, Daston, Kuiken Riehle, 2006; Shandra Hogan, 2008). The consequence of this is that young people with disabilities leaving high school are not given the opportunity to learn proper work ethics, communication skills or the kinds of attitudes that make them hireable. The IDEA requires schools to develop transition plans by working with students and parents and to provide transition services that prepare students for employment after graduation. The increased emphasis by the IDEA on students with disabilities being prepared for employment has been driven by the pervasive and persistent rate of post school employment outcome for young people with disabilities, the well established finding in the literature that gaining work experience s during high school is the most trustworthy predictor of favorable post school employment outcomes, and the finding that working during high school contributes to independent living post high school by promoting the young persons autonomy, vocational identity, career awareness and ambitions, workplace skills, values and ethics. However, it is reported that having a transition plan in place does not necessarily mean that students will be successfully employed (Sabbatino Macrine, 2007; Shandra Hogan, 2008; Carter et al, 2010). Carter et al (2010) investigated the summer employment and community participation experiences and outcomes of 136 high school students with severe disabilities. Predictor measures included employment skill (understand requirements for preferred employment, make informed occupational choices, know how to obtain a job, demonstrate general job skills and attitude for getting and maintaining a job, and having specific knowledge and skills to perform a particular job), community activities (non-work activities), self-determination (ability to perform specific self-determination behaviors, perceptions of efficacy of self-determined behaviors, knowledge about self-determination and associated behaviors), social skills and problem behaviors, spring work activities, career preparation activities (career interest assessments, goal setting and planning, workplace visits, occupation specific training, vocational education classes, social skills training, and person-centered planning), and teach er expectations for employment. They found that 61.7% of these students were not working and 11.1% reported sheltered employment. Those who work in competitive jobs mainly engaged in tasks related to cleaning, food services, stocking and assembly-related work. Those who worked completed about 10.3 hours a week for competitive jobs, 12.0 hours for unpaid jobs and 17.8 hours for sheltered jobs. Only three of the participants worked full time (more than 35 hours a week). Most of the respondents reported that they receive supports from school staff (63.6%), parents (63.6%) and employment agencies (13.6%). They obtained jobs through the help of school staff (58.6%) or parents (23.5%). For the students (47.7%) who did not work, two reasons were offered: parents did not want them to work (36.9%) and specific barriers to finding and maintaining employment (30.8%), including limited transportation and supports. The most important factor associated with getting and maintaining a paid job was employment skill, which were related to spring work experiences and teacher expectation. Working in the spring increases the odd of gaining a summer job by 5.28 times or a 36% better chance of getting a paid job (Carter et al, 2010). Estrada-Hernandez et al (2008) investigated the experience of individuals with disabilities in transition from school to work. In particular, the researchers examined the mediating effects of the severity of disability among 115 high school students with disability on their employment outcomes in an intensive school-to-work transition program. The authors concluded that employment outcomes were significantly affected by the severity of disability despite the fact that their interests were appropriated matched to the jobs they performed. As a result, while participants had positive employment outcomes in the area of job entry, such outcomes may not necessarily result in higher earn

Physics of the Ear Essay -- Term Papers Research

Physics of the Ear The ear is an extraordinary human organ that many people take for granted until it doesn’t function. It is the only device that allows the human to hear sounds in their environment. The ear is made up of many parts that distinguish various sounds through different means. The ear anatomy and physiology along with how sound waves are transmitted into meaningful sounds will help one understand how hearing loss occurs. The ear is made up of three areas: the outer, middle, and inner ear. The outer ear is very important for collecting sound waves. It is made up of the pinna and the ear canal. The pinna, the actual physical outward appearance of the ear, receives sound waves and begins to funnel them into the ear canal. The ear canal is also known as the auditory meatus which is basically a convoluted tube. The next part of the ear, the tympanic membrane, is the beginning of the middle ear. The ear drum is crucial in the ability to hear. The tympanic membrane leads to a chain of small bones known as the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup). The stapes is ended with the footplate, a bone that looks like a stirrup. This area is known as the middle ear or the tympanic cavity. Located at the bottom of this area is the Eustachian tube which leads down to the throat. Its main purpose is to maintain the equalization of pressure between the tympanic cavity and the atmosphere as the air in the cavity is absorbed by the cells of its surface. The next area is the inner ear. This area contains many important structures to the hearing process. It begins with the oval window which is struck by the footplate of the Stapes. The cochlea is the area where most sound is transmitted from waves into impulses. W... ... environment. In order to do that we must know the anatomy of our ear and how it functions. An important function is how the sound wave is transmitted into meaningful information through means of frequency, amplitude, and location. By understanding how the ear functions people are able to understand and prevent hearing loss. WORKS CITED David, Edward E. Jr., John K. Pierce, and William A. Van Bergeijk. Waves, and the Ear. NY: Anchor Books. 1960. p- 34-50 Kirkpatrick, Larry D. and Gerald F. Wheeler. Physics: A World View, 4th ed. Orlando, FL. Harcourt College Publishers: 2001. p- 365-71 Littler, T.S. The Physics of the Ear, v3. NY: Macmillan Company. 1965. P- 1-9 Pickles, James O. An Intro to the Physiology of Hearing. NY: Academic Press. 1982. p- 264- 79 Sataloff, Joseph. Hearing Loss. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. 1980 P- 67; 75; 175-77;

How to Write a Movie Review

How to Write a Movie Review Writing a movie review is a great way of expressing your opinion of a movie. The purpose of most movie reviews is to help the reader in determining whether they want to watch, rent or buy the movie. The review should give enough details about the movie that the reader can make an informed decision, without giving anyway any essentials such as the plot or any surprises. Below are our guidelines and tips for writing a good movie review. 1. Watch the movie The first step in writing the review is to watch the movie. Watch the movie in a relaxed environment you are familiar with.You do not want to be distracted by an unfamiliar room. Watching the movie a second time will help you to absorb a lot more detail about the movie. Most movie reviewers take notes as they watch the movie. 2. Give your opinion Most movie reviewers will give their opinion of the movie. This is important as the reviewer can express the elements of the movie they enjoyed or  disliked. How ever, as in all good journalism, the reviewer should also give impartial details, and allow the reader to make their own mind over an issue the reader liked or disliked.Opinions should be explained to allow the reader to determine whether they would agree with your opinion . Many regular movie reviewers will  develop a following. If one can find a reviewer who shares a similar taste in films, one can confidently follow the reviewers recommendations. 3. Who is your audience? You need to consider who your likely readers are. Writing a movie review for children requires a different approach than if writing for a movie club. Ensure you report on the factors that matter to your likely audience. 4. Give an outlineGive the outline of the movie, but don't give away essential details such as the end or any surprises. If there is a big surprise you want to entice readers by telling them something special happens, just don't say what. 5. Actors If the movie contains actors, as most do, detai l who is starring in the movie and how well you think they acted. 6. Structure Did the movie follow a regular predictable story line, or did it  get you  thinking like a Quentin Tarantino movie? 7. Cinematography and lighting Give details about how well the movie was shot and directed.Was the lighting good in the moody scenes? 8. Music Did the movie have its own score like Koyaanisqatsi or ET, or did it feature songs from popular artists? 9. Read, read and read Read and check your review thoroughly. It can be embarrassing to find errors in your work after it has been published. This is especially important for reviews that will be published on the Internet, as search engines are always looking for the correct spellings of keywords. wikiHow https://login. yahoo. com/config/mail? &. src=ym&. intl=au

Mark Prior

Luck has had little to do with Mark Prior’s success as a ballplayer. It was his dedication and  talent that landed Prior in the major leagues and perhaps a lack of luck that attributed to the right-  handed pitcher being sidelined during the peak of his career. But at age 26, Prior is optimistic of  a comeback. When Prior debuted with the Chicago Cubs on May 22, 2002, he was nothing short of  impressive which should have been expected considering he was the second overall pick in the  draft. His record earned him all-star status as he was chosen to play in the 2003 All-Star game in  only his first full season in the major leagues. Prior’s pitching technique seemed flawless and was considered a combination of the styles of  Greg Maddox and Roger Clemens. His first full season with the Chicago Cubs ranked him third  in the National League’s Cy Young Award voting with a record of 18 wins and only six losses.  Prior became well known for his 90-plus mph fastball, curveball, slurveball and changeup. But freak accidents and injuries began to disrupt his career in the making. Numerous stints on  the disabled list and now an entire season on hold to recuperate from shoulder surgery have  many questioning the future of the once valued Cubs pitcher. Born September 7, 1980, Prior attended University of San Diego High School where he  excelled on the ball field. As a 1998 graduate, he had a 0.93 earned run average. Prior was then  drafted by the New York Yankees in the amateur draft but a contract was never negotiated and  signed. He began his college education at Vanderbilt University, the same school his father attended.  During his sophomore year, Prior transferred to the University of Southern California (USC).  There he was honored as one of the best collegiate athletes in the country. Prior pitched for USC for two seasons and earned numerous awards including seven national  Player of the Year awards. As a junior, his record was 15-1 with six complete games and three  shutouts. His ERA was 1.69. He earned the prestigious Golden Spikes Award. He also led the  team to the 2000 College World Series. Prior entered the draft again and this time he was chosen as the second pick overall in the  draft. As he concentrated on his baseball career and the hope of one day being called up to play  for the Chicago Cubs, Prior continued his college education on a part-time basis and eventually  earned a business degree in 2004 from the USC Marshall School of Business.  In 2003, his first full season as a pitcher for the Cubs, his talent was obvious as he tallied an  18-6 win-lose record despite missing three starts due to an injury. Prior was injured when he  collided on the field with the Atlanta Braves second baseman Marcus Giles. Both Prior and Giles  were scheduled to play in the 2003 All-Star Game but missed due to their injuries.  Prior was voted Player of the Month in August and September. He went on to earn a 10-1  record as the Cubs made their way into the playoffs. That led to the infamous fan interference  incident in which Steve Bartman caught a fly ball hit into the stands that could have easily been  caught by the Cubs outfielder. The Cubs ended up losing the game and Prior suffered through the  loss. In 2004, Prior missed the first two months of the season with an Achilles tendon injury.  Although rumors surfaced that Prior needed reconstructive elbow surgery, he returned to the  mound with a less than stellar performance with six wins and four losses and an ERA of 4.02.  Again in 2005, Prior started the season on the disabled list. He returned and was pitching up  to par until May 27th when another misfortune came his way. Prior was pitching to Brad Hawpe, an old rival from LSU who hit a three-run homerun off  Prior in the College World Series. As they faced off in the major leagues, Hawpe drilled a pitch  and sent a 117 mph line drive back to Prior, hitting him in the right elbow and putting him on the  disabled list with a compression fracture. Prior finished the season 11-7 in 27 starts.  During spring training the following year, Prior began to feel a stiffness in his throwing  shoulder. He was put on a slow pitch program and sent for tests that revealed he had a strained  shoulder. He was put on the disabled list for 15 days in March missing the start of the 2006  season. When he returned, he gave up six runs to the Detroit Tigers in the first inning. He went  on to earn a devastating 0-4 record with a 7.71 ERA and was once again put on the disabled list  after straining his left oblique during batting practice. He returned to the minor leagues and three  games later, Prior earned his first win of the year against the Pittsburgh Pirates. By August of 2006, he was back on the disabled list with tendonitis for the remainder of the  season. His record was 1-6 and ERA was a high 7.21.During the off-season, he complained of a loose shoulder and when conditioning did not  improve the situation, Prior sought medical treatment and discovered he would need arthroscopic  surgery on his right shoulder. In April, Prior underwent surgery and it was successful but put an early end to the 2007  season before it even began for him. Because of his age, doctors see no reason Prior cannot  return to pitching in 2007. RESOURCES MLB Advanced Media, LP (2001-2007) Chicago Cubs. Retrieved May 8, 2007 from http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/team/player.jsp?player_id=407578      

Free Essays on Beowulf - Herot The Antagonist

Herot the Antagonist Beowulf was said to be written around the 700’s but was created long before that time. Past down from generation to generation by word of mouth until it was composed in Old English by one of the monasteries in northeast England. The poem itself is based in a time well before the sixth century, with most of its material based on early folk legend. The author of the epic of Beowulf uses characterization to show the world what Grendel was like and possibly his deeper side. â€Å"Grendel†, the name itself sounds evil or at least unfriendly and is perfect for the monster of the story. At the beginning of the story, Grendel is described as â€Å"a powerful monster, living down in the darkness (1).† This starts the very lengthy wording of how evil Grendel is and how much the audience is suppose to not like him. Grendel was â€Å"the demon, the fiend that haunted the moors and lived in hell but on earth (16).† This is eye candy to the mind, which brings life to a character that doesn’t exist except in our heads. Grendels first killing at Herot was merciless act in which he â€Å"snatched up thirty men, smashed them and then took their bodies back to his lair (38).† Grendel sounds truly like a monster until the author takes him down to size with a vivid metal image of the battle that took place. His description of how Beowulf rips off his arm shows that Grendel wasn’t entirely all he was cracked up to be. He had the spell where no mortal weapons could hurt him but apparently wasn’t smart enough to make it where no mortal could hurt him. †¦to the edge of the lake where he’d dragged his corpselike way, doomed and already weary of his vanishing life. The water was bloody, steaming and boiling in horrible pounding waves†¦ (525) Grendels retreat to the lake brings an end to his reign of terror of the people of Herot. The lake represents his passage onto hell and final resting place. There was also a sad side to ... Free Essays on Beowulf - Herot The Antagonist Free Essays on Beowulf - Herot The Antagonist Herot the Antagonist Beowulf was said to be written around the 700’s but was created long before that time. Past down from generation to generation by word of mouth until it was composed in Old English by one of the monasteries in northeast England. The poem itself is based in a time well before the sixth century, with most of its material based on early folk legend. The author of the epic of Beowulf uses characterization to show the world what Grendel was like and possibly his deeper side. â€Å"Grendel†, the name itself sounds evil or at least unfriendly and is perfect for the monster of the story. At the beginning of the story, Grendel is described as â€Å"a powerful monster, living down in the darkness (1).† This starts the very lengthy wording of how evil Grendel is and how much the audience is suppose to not like him. Grendel was â€Å"the demon, the fiend that haunted the moors and lived in hell but on earth (16).† This is eye candy to the mind, which brings life to a character that doesn’t exist except in our heads. Grendels first killing at Herot was merciless act in which he â€Å"snatched up thirty men, smashed them and then took their bodies back to his lair (38).† Grendel sounds truly like a monster until the author takes him down to size with a vivid metal image of the battle that took place. His description of how Beowulf rips off his arm shows that Grendel wasn’t entirely all he was cracked up to be. He had the spell where no mortal weapons could hurt him but apparently wasn’t smart enough to make it where no mortal could hurt him. †¦to the edge of the lake where he’d dragged his corpselike way, doomed and already weary of his vanishing life. The water was bloody, steaming and boiling in horrible pounding waves†¦ (525) Grendels retreat to the lake brings an end to his reign of terror of the people of Herot. The lake represents his passage onto hell and final resting place. There was also a sad side to ...

The political carreers of Huey Long and Father Coughlin essays

The political carreers of Huey Long and Father Coughlin essays Throughout the Great Depression the United States went through tremendous change. When there is a time of great change, there are always people who oppose it, whether the change is good or bad. The issue of this report is not to discuss if the changes in America throughout the depression were positive or negative, but to discuss the people who opposed it; primarily focusing on Huey Long and Charles Coughlin, or Father Coughlin, and their reasoning and methods of protest. Huey Long and Father Coughlin were extremely influential politicians who opposed the creeping new society of Big Business and high technology. They blamed certain companies and theyre owners (Carnegie, Rockefeller, Pullman, ect.) of Big Business for the financial distraught of America, and were very successful in conveying their argument. However, they were not so successful in achieving their goal in the destruction of this new technological society, for the simple reason that they were too late. The society of America and the world had already turned towards this economic change. To understand the views of Long and Coughlin you must understand the people that they are. Huey Long was a fiery young man from the start. At the age of twenty he made the prophecy that he would run for election first to secondary stated office in Louisiana, then for governor, then for United States Senator, and finally for president (page 8). He had the combination of ruthless ambition, along with compassion of the downtrodden. Throughout his life he completed all of his predictions, except for the most prestigious: the presidency. Many believe the only reason he did not succeed in becoming president is because he was assassinated before he got the chance. He was known to many as the Kingfish, referring to his near dictatorship on Louisiana. He constantly went off into filibusters during congressional meetings, whether it be to pursuade against or in fav...

Alcohol Addiction and the Addiction Process

Despite the general tendency to assume that we can recognize addiction when we encounter it, the idea of addiction is not well defined.   No matter what the addiction, all addiction begins as a habit and progresses from there.   Even if there is a genetic component, the initial expression of the addiction is expressed as a habit. Some habitual addictions end up as chemical imbalances in the body, others as changes at one or more receptor sites and so on. The concept of addiction as it is often portrayed and used is unclear.   Finagarette (1988) and Davies (1992) proposed that the concept of addiction as it is generally viewed is a myth.   Other researchers have presented similar ideas. (Szasz, 1974; Peele, 1985)   Since the 1970s, some have suggested that the concept of addiction requires revision in that it combines social discourse, moral dilemmas, psychological states and pharmacology in an awkward manner. (Hammersley and Reid)   The typical view of addiction is generally viewed as a myth. (Szasz, 1974; Peele, 1985; Finagarette, 1988; Davies, 1992)   The general view of the concept of addiction may be of little value and require major revision. (Akers, 1991)   Today, terms such as â€Å"substance abuse† and â€Å"drug dependence† are subtly replacing the idea of addiction. (Edwards and Gross, 1976) Theoretically, there are at least two general classes of addiction:   1) physical dependence and 2) psychological dependence.   The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV TR) defines substance dependence as a cluster of symptoms that indicate that the individual has a pattern of impaired control over substance use. The seven DSM-IV TR criteria for Dependence can be separated into physiological dependence and compulsive use.   Addiction is considered to be the uncontrolled, compulsive use of a substance.   Physical and psychological addictions are not always easy to distinguish, especially as there is certainly some degree of overlap between the two. Each type of addiction has its own cause.   This report will focus on alcohol addiction.   We will look at the addiction process from beginning to end.   We will ask, What causes addiction or Why does addiction begin, Why does addiction persist and finally, Why does it end?   Our approach will be to take a general look at addictions so we will know and understand what we are dealing with and then to focus on one type of addiction, alcohol addiction, for an in-depth consideration and review. We will begin by looking at the concept of addiction and defining what the means and we will proceed from there.   Overall, we will discuss the general aspects of alcohol addiction and then apply what has been discussed to a hypothetical case. In what follows, we will create a hypothetical case that will exemplify the addiction process from the initial stages to addiction to treatment.   If we are to follow the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) model, the process cannot go beyond treatment because the AA model does not allow for a cure.   Addicts are always recovering and never recover, so we will follow the AA model and its treatment throughout the life of the addict.   We will create our hypothetical addict after defining what is generally meant by the term addiction. Addiction Defined Substance abuse is widely viewed as addiction, but Hammersley and Reid (2002) point out that addiction is a dramatic, dangerous and chronic condition caused by the biological effects of drugs.   Hammersley and Reid suggest that substance use is a normal behavior with social causes and should be viewed as such without perpetuating any unhelpful moral issues and the unsuccessful solutions suggested by the myth. Hammersley and Reid suggest that the myth of addiction continues and prevails because it is functional in western cultures and can be used to deal with issues of ‘control’.   According to the generally accepted myth, addictive drugs are supposed to meet six criteria.   They are 1) supposed to lead to addiction quickly and easily, 2) force addicts to resort to crime to finance their drug habit, 3) have psychoactive effects, 4) cause serious health damage or death, 5) supplied by ruthless criminals and 6) addiction is long lasting if not permanent.   For the most part, these ideas appear to be mainly fiction. These ideas are essentially a myth based on exaggeration and distortion regarding the effects of certain drugs.   Such myths are common.   They arise, in part, because evidence counter to these ideas is ignored and individual cases of â€Å"mythical figures and events† that support the myth are commonly projected before the public. As a result of these myths, the public is led to believe that drug users started out as naà ¯ve you people who were persuaded to use drugs, then become addicted and then turn to a life of depravity and crime because they are unable to control their habit and they need to finance their drug use.   (McAdams, 1993) Although a number of drugs have been used to perpetuate this myth, cannabis is perhaps the most common and widespread example of the myth.   In the late 1960s and 1970s, many believed that cannabis use would lead to serious psychological harm.   Research failed to confirm this belief. (Johnson, 1973)   Other drugs that have been involved in this myth include heroin, cocaine and ecstasy. Research to understanding drug abuse often focuses on changes at a specific receptor site.   The studies will investigate those changes and seek to determine how to control them with medications.   However, in contrast to many other commonly abused drugs, alcohol   does not bind to specific receptors (Kranzler and Ciraulo, 2005), but it appears to modify neuronal membranes and neurotransmitter receptors embedded in those membranes in a variety of neurotransmitter systems, including virtually all the major system found to be associated with psychiatric symptoms (Kranzler, 1995) If we were to apply this information to the hypothetical case of a male alcoholic since, even though both males and females become alcoholic, males are two or three times more likely than females to become alcoholic, we would arrive at the situation of a male in his mid to late twenties who began drinking socially and quickly became an alcoholic.   Subsequently, he turned to crime to support his drinking habit. His habit is now long lasting and permanent.   This would be the hypothetical example of an alcoholic that supports the myth of addictive drugs discussed by Hammersley and Reid.   Viewed from the perspective of an alcoholic, we can see that this model would not apply well to alcoholics. Although his habit may have begun socially, and other aspects of the generally accepted myth might sometimes hold true, becoming addicted was a gradual process, the drug was legally sold at liquor stores and perhaps even in grocery stores and may even have been provided in small amounts in the community church.   No ruthless criminals were involved and the alcoholic had no need to resort to crime to finance their drug habit.   Therefore, the myth, although consistent with some aspects of reality, is misleading and inaccurate. We can see that the characteristics of alcohol addiction are sufficiently consistent with the generally accepted myth as to allow individuals to assume that it supports the myth.   However, none of the components of the myth need to occur in order for an individual to become alcoholic. Perhaps the one characteristic that may always apply is that alcohol is psychoactive, but in small amounts, not even that characteristic need apply.   Alcohol addiction is a gradual process, it   is relatively inexpensive, it is psychoactive, it has beneficial effects as well as harmful ones, is legally sold in liquor stores and in supermarkets and may even be found in the neighborhood church during communion and finally, alcohol addicted individuals are not always doomed to a permanent or long lasting addiction. Yes, each of these things can occur although the idea of a drug pusher selling alcohol is far-fetched.   Our alcohol addict is merely an individual, in this case a male but it could have been either sexual gender, who began drinking for whatever reason and then, somehow went overboard.  Ã‚   We have already touched upon causes and treatment and will now move on to those considerations below.

Religious Liberty Talk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Religious Liberty Talk - Essay Example Thus, for widely distributed network of people, freedom of religion becomes hugely important issue. The article explores the speech of President Obama at the recent National Prayer Breakfast which was attended by eminent people across different segment of society. Kathleen has criticized Obama who had ‘lamented eroding protection of religious liberty’ across the globe’. She says that it is unethical of Obama to talk about religious liberty when modules of healthcare reforms of Obamacare are distinct in their violation of religious liberty, especially the contraceptive mandate. She contends that while overtly we may be supporting the issue, covert actions and diminishing redlines between state and religion has become major concern. The author’s has rightly brought the issue to the limelight as Obama administration has adopted confrontational attitude with regard to religious liberty. The case of Hobby Lobby and Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church and School v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission are significant in their differing opinions. In the later case, jury had unanimously voted against the government interference in the recruitment of minister in church. Indeed, religious freedom is inherently linked to democratic postulates of American constitution that promote freedom of actions and thoughts. By infringing the religious freedom of individuals within a multicultural society, the government is also violating constitutional rights of the

Professional future Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Professional future - Assignment Example In making application for the course I have discovered that there are set of laws which must be all followed to absorb into the course. One is that you have to be a registered nurse. Second is that you must be a practicing registered nursing student with a nursing degree. Thirdly, you must complete the CNRN certification application and paid a specific fee before submitting the copies to the concerned individuals. Individuals who attain this certification can work in a number of places, including hospitals, health care clinics, brain injury units and intensive rehabilitation unit (Carpenito & Fry, 2014). I will begin my course or individual study of my future career of being a registered Nuero-registered nurse sometimes during may next year. This will form one of my best moments in life as I will be sure that my dreams are coming true and this will be after my application for neuroscience nursing in an institution in Chicago (McKinney,

Ming dynasty Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ming dynasty - Research Paper Example Although it also saw a lot of problems and setbacks, the Ming Dynasty is considered to be one of the greatest eras of solidity and affluence in the history of China. Based on historical evidence, although there were other contributing factors to the success of the dynasty, this time of great progress and flourishing of the life in the country can be largely attributed to the effective governance and prudent reforms of its numerous emperors. The Mongols were the ones held power before the formation of the Ming Dynasty. It was the first emperor of the Ming, Emperor Taizu, who led the rebellion against the foreign rulers and overthrew the Mongolian power in China, leaving the locals to rule their own country. Immediately after the establishment of the new empire, he set out to make reforms that changed all aspects of Chinese life for hundreds of years. Also known as the Hongwu Emperor, he began a great feat to reform China and he did so successfully, starting with the revival of the economy. Great efforts were made to improve the yield of the fields and farms, such as the reconstruction of ditches and watercourses, which were managed poorly and disregarded during the previous dynasty. Many neglected lands were also brought back to life by restarting cultivation and agriculture there. Many other agricultural attempts to restore stability and progress in terms of agriculture were made. This included tree-planting programs a ll over the provinces. As a result, the agricultural yield in the entire nation steadily tripled in only less than a decade. (Twichett et al, 264) Hongwu also made these reforms not only to increase the agricultural production of the country, but to also make efforts that would benefit those who were suffering in poverty at the time. In order to allow the peasants to gain opportunities to better their lives, he made many migrate to other areas, and also tried to equalize the distribution of property to many

Cleaning and Maintenance of Capital Kitchen Equipment Assignment

Cleaning and Maintenance of Capital Kitchen Equipment - Assignment Example In our discussion, we shall consider dishwashers, ovens, refrigerators, ranges/cookers and ventilation equipment. We shall further look at how best we can maintain the equipment to ensure they retain quality. Imagine washing 1,000 dishes manually. A lot of time will be spent scrubbing the dishes, which leads to fatigue. You may have to employ the services of more than one person. You will need plenty of soap. If in a busy setting, such as hotels with a large turnover of the customers, it may end up being a major expense. Many people with such needs end up acquiring a dishwasher. Unlike manual cleaning, a one-time purchase makes the cleaning more efficient. A dishwasher is mechanical and cleans many dishes at once. It uses electric energy. It has rotating sprays of hot water that clean the oily and greasy dishes. Detergent and water is sprayed at first to clean them, after which it is drained and clean water sprayed to rinse them. A heating element in the washer is then used to dry th e dishes (Sforza, 2014). Ovens are heat-insulated machines that can achieve very high degrees of heat. They are used in both a domestic and a commercial and industrial setting. In a domestic setting, they are machines used for cooking. They can also be used to heat the house, bake and even dry some materials. In a commercial setting, ovens are used for large-scale baking, pottery, metalwork, amongst other activities involving a lot of heat but have to be customized for these duties (Sforza, 2014).

Choose one film to analyze in depth as a product of New Hollywood Essay - 1

Choose one film to analyze in depth as a product of New Hollywood - Essay Example Some of this action was spurred by the drastic social changes that were taking place at the time in the form of Civil Rights and Womens Liberation, not to mention the conflict in Vietnam and the conflict that caused back in the States. In an attempt to compete, studios found it necessary to merge with larger corporations that could provide additional revenue streams and stabilize the bottom line. Vertically integrated studios became a thing of the past and movie production fell in the early 1960s opening the way for foreign films to step in. These films and the fact that European, particularly British, locations offered lower budgets, enabled many of the artistic experimental styles being explored in Europe at that time to find their way into Hollywood productions. As the older directors began to phase out of the Hollywood limelight, younger directors such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, Robert Altman or Mark Nichols willing to take chances and able to keep low budgets bega n to emerge. In these films, such as The Graduate by Nichols (1967), the directors employed experimental techniques to keep budgets low and focus on greater social issues of their times. In this example film, a young man returns from achieving his college education only to have his high ideals destroyed by the plastic society he is expected to join. In The Graduate, Mike Nichols captures much of the essence of New Hollywood from a variety of perspectives. An important aspect to consider in the development of New Hollywood is the number of massive socio-cultural movements that were taking place at the time. The Civil Rights Movement started in the mid-1950s with a much publicized Montgomery bus boycott. The power of the people to affect change was clear by 1964 when the Civil Rights Act banned Jim Crow segregation laws in the South. Black people now had the legal right to social equality if not the physical expression. The Civil Rights Act also

Ming dynasty Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ming dynasty - Research Paper Example Although it also saw a lot of problems and setbacks, the Ming Dynasty is considered to be one of the greatest eras of solidity and affluence in the history of China. Based on historical evidence, although there were other contributing factors to the success of the dynasty, this time of great progress and flourishing of the life in the country can be largely attributed to the effective governance and prudent reforms of its numerous emperors. The Mongols were the ones held power before the formation of the Ming Dynasty. It was the first emperor of the Ming, Emperor Taizu, who led the rebellion against the foreign rulers and overthrew the Mongolian power in China, leaving the locals to rule their own country. Immediately after the establishment of the new empire, he set out to make reforms that changed all aspects of Chinese life for hundreds of years. Also known as the Hongwu Emperor, he began a great feat to reform China and he did so successfully, starting with the revival of the economy. Great efforts were made to improve the yield of the fields and farms, such as the reconstruction of ditches and watercourses, which were managed poorly and disregarded during the previous dynasty. Many neglected lands were also brought back to life by restarting cultivation and agriculture there. Many other agricultural attempts to restore stability and progress in terms of agriculture were made. This included tree-planting programs a ll over the provinces. As a result, the agricultural yield in the entire nation steadily tripled in only less than a decade. (Twichett et al, 264) Hongwu also made these reforms not only to increase the agricultural production of the country, but to also make efforts that would benefit those who were suffering in poverty at the time. In order to allow the peasants to gain opportunities to better their lives, he made many migrate to other areas, and also tried to equalize the distribution of property to many

Choose one film to analyze in depth as a product of New Hollywood Essay - 1

Choose one film to analyze in depth as a product of New Hollywood - Essay Example Some of this action was spurred by the drastic social changes that were taking place at the time in the form of Civil Rights and Womens Liberation, not to mention the conflict in Vietnam and the conflict that caused back in the States. In an attempt to compete, studios found it necessary to merge with larger corporations that could provide additional revenue streams and stabilize the bottom line. Vertically integrated studios became a thing of the past and movie production fell in the early 1960s opening the way for foreign films to step in. These films and the fact that European, particularly British, locations offered lower budgets, enabled many of the artistic experimental styles being explored in Europe at that time to find their way into Hollywood productions. As the older directors began to phase out of the Hollywood limelight, younger directors such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, Robert Altman or Mark Nichols willing to take chances and able to keep low budgets bega n to emerge. In these films, such as The Graduate by Nichols (1967), the directors employed experimental techniques to keep budgets low and focus on greater social issues of their times. In this example film, a young man returns from achieving his college education only to have his high ideals destroyed by the plastic society he is expected to join. In The Graduate, Mike Nichols captures much of the essence of New Hollywood from a variety of perspectives. An important aspect to consider in the development of New Hollywood is the number of massive socio-cultural movements that were taking place at the time. The Civil Rights Movement started in the mid-1950s with a much publicized Montgomery bus boycott. The power of the people to affect change was clear by 1964 when the Civil Rights Act banned Jim Crow segregation laws in the South. Black people now had the legal right to social equality if not the physical expression. The Civil Rights Act also

Adolescent and Predictable and Unpredictable Elenents of This Transition and Associated Life-Stage Essay Example for Free

Adolescent and Predictable and Unpredictable Elenents of This Transition and Associated Life-Stage Essay Abdallah. Ayda Critical Reflection Essay Introduction Within the context of nursing there has been a significant change in nursing in the last two decades, where nursing and medical knowledge has led to changes where patients can no longer stay in hospital and reduction in hospital beds. Professionals who are employed in the healthcare industry are dealing with acutely ill patients who are in more need of care (usher et al 2009). As professionals we must discover the nature that is offered to us by responding and using reflective thoughts to enhance the important aspects in society (Lauder et al 2004). And qualified nurses, acknowledge and understanding is essential for their practice to remain current, continuous improvement in reflecting on our thoughts, and what we do becomes Habitual to our practice (usher et al 2008). It is a necessity for nurses to use critical thinking as it helps gather relevant information to assist practitioners in examining assumptions and identify relationships and patterns (Parker Clare 2000). We begin this chapter by exploring the concept of critical reflection and why it is important for a nurse, as well as provide an over view of the related legislation that requires the use of reflective thinking in practice by registered nurses, the next section addresses the Gibbs Cycle of what, why and overview of definitions of reflection. Nurses are becoming more aware of the need to utilize and improve their practice, as well as consider the political, social structure issues affecting it. (Taylor 2000). As changes are occurring with the nursing context it is essential for nurses to analyze and respond to different challenges. Initiatively, reflection is the foundation of organizing difficult situations when faced, it also is easily understood, if any problem aroused in the work place (usher et al 2008). John (1998), explains the description of reflection of when being faced with contradictions allows practitioners to assess, think critically and reflect on their practice. In addition reflection is a process which allows existence in acknowledge in the way nursing theory, for example can. Reflection is cognitive in relation to changes of things we do which is not a technique or curriculum element. See more:  First Poem for You Essay Reflective practice enables practitioners to learn from their experiences and what they do, how they do it, what they say in relation to their home  and work, in the significant of others and wider society and culture. Nurses who engage in some form of activity are set out by regulatory authorities indicate an adoption with the Australian Nursing and Midwifery Council, (ANMC). Competency standards for registered nurses (2005), in the early 1990’s Australian Nursing and Midwifery Council, (ANMC) had first adopted the national competency standards for registered nurses. Establishment of the organization was in 1992, to develop a national approach to nursing and Midwifery regulation. To ensure and deliver safe competent care, the (ANMC) worked together with the state and territory nursing and midwifery authorities (NMRAS) to produce national standard. In relation, to the AHPRA’S Scheme, which came into effect of 1st of July, 2010, the operations are governed by the health and practitioner regulation national law Act, 2009 (QLD) and each state and territory. In addition with the national scheme, responsibility was taken over for the regulation of nurses and midwifes in Australia, and taken ownership of the national competency standard for registered nurses. The minimum care standards for a nurse in Australia are the 4 domains provisions and coordination of care, professional practice, critical thinking and analysis, collaborative and therapeutic practice. The domains of reflections which also include self-appraisal reflecting on ones own practices by feeling and beliefs and professional development. The domains have all been set out for the nurse to reflect on practice, reflectively and ethically (Australian Nursing and Midwifery Council 2008a, 2006). Reflections a verb which means to reflect on one thought (Hancock 1999). This might recall what one thinks and memories in a cognitive act such as overviewing identifying error. (Taylor 2000). Reflection is an activity in the guidance of an action before it happens. (Francis 1995). Rolfe et al (2001), argue that knowledge for practice that does not come from text books or lectures. In addition they call it scientific knowledge that practitioners pick up from everyday knowledge, reflection is the process of theorizing about that knowledge. In consideration, of the reflective views of recognizing strengths and weaknesses and my education enables me to make positive changes to my future practice by using Gibbs Cycle model. Gibbs Reflective Cycle ï‚ · ï‚ · Gibbs model begins with asking what happened. What was your feeling? This allows me to think what accured at the time of event. ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · What was my role in the situation? What was I trying to achieve and what action to take? What was the response of others and what they thought? We move from the second stage of Gibbs Cycle. ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · What does this tell me about my patients? What is the model is model of care I am using? How is my attitude towards the patient? What should I have done to make this better? Final stage of Gibbs model. ï‚ · ï‚ · What do I need to do to make things better? Question myself about improving patient care; widen my knowledge to improve patient care. Conclusion: During my research I began to acknowledge the fact that critical reflection is essential in nursing to enable to look back words on errors made in the work place. Gibbs Cycle is the tool in reflecting back on thoughts and actions accomplished by nurses. If we look back on what we do and how we do it, high care of patient care can be monitored easily without causing harm in the work place. (ANMC) embraces all nurses and practitioners to engage in some type of activity to enhance reflective thinking as it helps in gathering relevant and current information as it is part of the legislation. I feel it has come to my mind that critical reflection it is an important tool on reflecting ones thoughts. Perception of my role: Critical reflection has knowledge me to look backwards and think of things we do. It has changed my perception of nursing as my knowledge expanded enormously towards my role as a nurse since commencing my university degree. I feel I have a responsibility as a nurse to follow the nursing and midwifery council scheme to remain current.

Swiss Style Typography History

Swiss Style Typography History What is it a good graphic design? Good graphic design or typography is like a taste. Hallmark of the taste rests in sensitivity, from feelings. Every one has a different taste, but it is indispensable for everyone. Graphic design works on an equal basis. We are not born with the right taste as well as there are no born masters of graphic design. All of them have to be every of them self educated. Perfect graphic consist of many elements, as a result of harmony. This magazine traces the growth of the good graphic design. It depicts not only the growth, but also a designers who formed the style, the people and ideas that influenced them and the following generations who were attracted to Swiss graphic design. This progressive, radical movement Swiss style also known as an International style, was originated in Switzerland in the 1920s . This style became famous because of very talented Swiss graphic designers. It emerged from Russian s Constructivism, Germany s De Stijl and Dadaism. The International Typographic Style, or Swiss Style, refers to the graphic design movement that evolved in Switzerland during the 1950s. Emphasizing clarity of information, the International Style propagated an aesthetic of objective photography in place of illustration; asymmetrical arrangement of elements on a modular grid system; sans-serif typography such as Akzidenz Grotesk; and flush left, ragged right configuration of text. Admired for its simple, clean, factual, and highly structured approach to organizing and presenting information. The magazine is divided into three parts. Part One shows the origins of the Swiss style, general information about the style, political and social influences. The following part represents the central figures in this movement and the New typography.6 swiss style In the post war period, modern design began more significant with development of industrialized society. Switzerland bacame an appropriate site for growth of an International style, by means of the country s position in the centre of Europe and its political neutrality. However, Swiss style started to grow in after the First World War in Europe. Henry van de Velde (1863 1957) was a famous Belgian architect and designer. He was also one of the most successful and important practitioners of the Art Nouveau style. He was known as the first Art Nouveau artist to work in an abstract style and developed the concept of the union of form and function. His idea was to bring art to industry. Van de Velde was the main graphic designer who influenced young Swiss designers. He was one of the founders of the decorative arts school of Weimar. This school was later called the Bauhaus. In 1907 he designed the new building of The School of Arts and Crafts and became the first director of this school. Among the teachers there were Russian, Wassily Kandinsky, Swiss Paul Klee and Johannes Itten. Young Swiss graphic designers attracted the school and many of them studied at the Bauhaus. The influence from the Bauhaus was apparent in Max Bill (1908 1994) and Theo Ballmer (1902 1965) works. Max Bill, a painter belonging to the Concrete Art movement in Z rich applied mathematical systems for the organization of space to his graphic design work. Another style which had an effect for the growth of an International style was Constructivism. Constructivism art refers to the optimistic, non-representational relief construction, sculpture, kinetics and painting. The artists did not believe in abstract ideas, rather they tried to link art with concrete and tangible ideas. Constructivist art is committed to complete abstraction with a devotion to modernity, where themes are often geometric, experimental and rarely emotional. El Lissitzky (1890 1941) was the main represetatives of Russian Constructivism. He brought a New Typography and photomontage to Switzerland. Lissitzky attended to the fundamental transformation of perception of literature. From acoustic percept of the past became visible words. Optical character of the new typography was defined in his bo ok from 1923. His work greatly influenced the Swiss style. Not only Wassily Kandinsky and Paul Klle who were teachers at Bauhaus, but also L szl Moholo Nagy (1895 1946) had notable position there. He had similar visual conception as Lissitzky. He was oriented in interaction of photography and text. Moholo Nagy perceived photography like an objective representation which can rescue obscurdity of words. He brought typography to question, he defined a new revolutionary idea typofoto combination of typography and photographic images.It is an objective form of representation based at princip of communication. Both of these movements influenced a new directions of art and development of graphic design. A book of modern graphic design Gefesselter Blick (Captured Glance) was published in Stuttgard in 1930. It was Sponzored by the Swiss Werkbund s Advertising Designers Circle. Design from 1920s publications were displayed in the book.. The book was edited by architects Heinz Rasch and Bodo Rasch. They rounded up a work of twenty six artists of the avant garde. Most of them were Germans (Werner Graef), three Swiss (Otto Baumberger, Max Bill and Walter Cylian), two Dutch (Paul Schutema, Piet Zwart), Russian (El Lissitzky), and Czech (Karel Teige). Even though, the Swiss were influenced by many styles, their own style became unique.Gefesselter Blick displays the origins and growth of the Swiss style. 8 swiss style In the first part of the magazine we introduced the origins and problems of the Swiss style in Graphic design. In this part we will mention the main artists, designers and propagonists of this movement. Ernst Keller (1931 2006) the father of Swiss design, was a graphic designer, artist and teacher. From 1918 and for four decades onward Keller taught a professional course in graphic design at the Kunstgewerbeschule Z rich (The Zurich School of Design) rejecting the notion of style in favor of design solutions derived from content. Keller was the most important single influence on the development of Swiss graphic design. The economically drawn images and inventive lettering of his posters designed in the 1920s and early 1930s made an important contribution to Modernism. He mentored Armin Hofmann (fig. 1), Emil Ruder, and Joseph-Muller Brockman, all of whom were important figures in what became the International Typographic Style. Significance of the International Typographic Style has been unfairly reduced to the aesthetic preferences evident in the outcomes of work by designers identified with the movement. To recognize its substance one needs to study the specifics of its origin roo ted in the curriculum developed at the Basel School of Design. One of the important figures of origins of the Swiss style was also Theo Ballmer (1902 1965). He was a designer, photographer and teacher. Ballmer studied at Bauhaus and at Kunstgewerbeschule in Zurich. He is known for his political posters and exhibitions, using only simple images and lettering (fig. 4). Otto Baumberger (1889 1961) was one of the first Swiss who can be correctly described as a poster designer. He designed more than two hundred posters, which helped to modernize the style. In its variety, Baumberger s work embodies and exemplifies the history of Swiss poster art in the first half of the twentieth century, as the painterly artist poster gradually evolved toward graphically oriented corporate design. Max Bill was another Swiss graphic artist, industrial designer, architect, sculptor, and painter, primarily important for his sophisticated, disciplined advertising designs. He studied at the Bauhaus until late 1920 s when he moved to Zurich where he became a teacher and prime member of the Allianz group of graphic designers. Max Bill belonging to the Concrete Art movement in Z rich applied mathematical systems for the organization of space to his graphic design work. Herbert Matter was a pioneer in the use of photomontage. His talented use of type earned him great international acclamation (fig.5). After working for the Swiss National Tourist Office and Swiss resorts he moved to the United States in 1936 and started teaching Photography at Yale University in 1952.12 swiss style was a leading German graphic designer who also exerted a strong influence on the Swiss school. Johannes Tzschichhold (Jan Tschichold) was born as a son of a Leipzig lettering artist and sign printer Franz Tzschichhold and his wife Maria Zapff, in April 1902. His father s profession gave him an early introduction to the many forms of written scripts. Young Tschichold often helped his father and also attended a printing museum in the Buchgewerbehaus (Book Industry Building) which were in the town. Consequently he had knowledges of typography from early age. Despite of his parents ideas, to have their son a professional art teacher, he decided to be educated as a lettering artist. While he studied (from 1919 to 1921) with Walter Tiemann, director of the Staatliche Akademie fur graphische Kunste und Buchgewerbe (Academy for Graphic Arts and Book production), he also attended courses in printmaking and bookbinding. Tschichold supported his education of the books of Edward Johnston (Calligraphy, Ornamental Script and Applied Script) and Rudolf von Larisch (Study in Ornamental Writin g) and created a number of calligraphic writings. Before leaving for Bauhas from 1921 to 1923 he worked in Leipzig as an assistant in teaching courses of calligraphy at the Academy. In 1923 he became a freelance designer in Leipzig. In the same year he visited Bauhaus exhibition and influenced by the modern artists and designers Wassily Kandinsky (1866 1944) and L szl Moholo Nagy, he started to propagate a new visual thinking. It was an inversion in his actual life. Soon, he was also introduced to the work of the Dutch graphic designer Piet Zwart 13 swiss style Exhibition poster, 1937 While getting acquainted with work we can fall into deluge of varied geometrics and simple effects. This poster looks like an absolutely pure example of New Typography. The design is simple and arithmetical. Tschichold, J. (1927) Napoleon [Poster]15 swiss style (1885 1977), and the Russian constructivists El Lisstzky. He worked with an assymetric composition, geometric shapes, the use of photography instead of illustrations and sans serif typefaces (fig. 11). In the light of my knowledge, it was a juvenile opinion to consider the sans serif as the most suitable or even the most contemporary typeface. Jan Tschichold (Jong, Purvis, Le Coultre, Doubleday and Reichardt, 2008 : 19) Tschichold was so impressed by Soviet constructivism and Russian Revolution, that he changed his name to Iwan (or Ivan) Tschichold in 1923. Tschichold became an important figure in the new movement known as the New Typography. A first spectacular publication of these views, Elementare typographie (Elementary Typography) , appeared in a special October 1925 issue of the German magazine Typographische Mitteilungen (Typographic News). This was a kind of typographic manifest and caused an uproar in the world of design. In the book Tschichold described the new ideas on typographic design. Artists and designers had various opinion at the publication. Lissitzky was delighted at the beautiful brochure. The book was received well at the Bauhaus, but the German constructivis reacted critically. Nevertheless, the book had an impact on the future design. The second book The purpose of the New Typography is functionality. The purpose of any typography is communication (the means of which are visualized).This communication has to appear in the shortest, simplest and most compelling form. For typography to serve social purposes, the inner form of the material employed must arrange the content whereas the outer form must establish a relantionship between the different typographic means. Inner organization means using as few basic constituents as possible; typefaces, numbers, signs, l ines from the type cases, and the typessetter. In the modern world focused on optics, the precise picture, i.e. photography, must be considered as a basic constituent of the New Typography. (Jong, Purvis, Le Coultre, Doubleday and Reichardt, 2008 : 39)16 swiss style was the most important, Die neue Typographie (The New Typography) was published in 1928. This book explained the function and communication of the New Typography. The book was used as a handbook for printers and publishers and even at the Bauhaus. In a small A5 format he described a modern typography in a short essay. Tschichold inspired by the functional determination of Bauhaus, formulated the basics of the modern visual communication in which aesthetics of modern abstract art were combined together with requirements for legibility, simplicity and subject information. His manifest the New Typography reflected the dynamism of life time, preferences of precision and clarity of sensatial visual. He preferred objective resources as the sans serif and geometric typeface (Grotesk), assymetric composition and whitespace. His book was widely read and highly influential as a major step in modern ideals. The book became the bible of every young typesetter. From 1927 until 1933 Tschichold constituted the New Typography in Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Switzerland and France. Because of the influence of the Nazis in 1933 Tschichold submitted his registration to the Munich Meiterschule, to assume a teaching position at the new Hohere Graphische Fachschule der Stadt Berlin (Berlin Higher Vocanional School for Graphic Arts). Although Tschichold had a post in Berlin, he changed his mind and decided that he would rather stay in Munich. After the Nazi victory in March 1933, Tschichold and his wife Edith were arrested and they were denounced as a Kulturbolshewist (cultural Bolshevists). Shortly after their arrest, they were released. Tschichold with Edith and their four year son immediately left Munich and on July 28, 1933 went to Basel in Switzerland. Their friend Hermann Kienzle, the director of the Allgemeine Gererbeschule (School of Arts and Crafts) in Basel, Poster for The Professional Photographer exhibition in Basel, 1938. A clear logic organization of the elements. The poster has geometrical structure, strict horizontal and vertical alignments. He used Akzidenz typeface (consended) and only lowercase. recommended Tschichold for a teaching post at the School of Arts and Crafts. Between 1933 and 1946, Tschichold produced numerous journal articles, in part due to financial pressure.Two years after he had moved to Switzerland, he published the most important book Typographische Gestaltung (Typographic Design). At this time he began to work with more traditional typefaces and layout arrangements. This book was not only about the New Typography but also about use of photography as a design component. According to Eskilson (2007:302) In this new book, Tschichold reiterated his support for the New Typography but also suggested that the assymetric, flush left layout was not only suitable design formula. Jan Tschichold was not only a typographer and a book designer. He was also poster designer. Before he left for Switzerland he had been makink posters for publishing houses or some film posters. But his first large commission was the poster for Phoebus Palast cinema in 1927. It was the largest cinema in Germany. He created for them posters, newspapers, advertisements and programs, we would called this as a corporate identity today. The other commisions were for the Volksverband fur Filmkunst (People s Association for Film Art), or The exhibition Das Internationale Plakat. A poster is a relatively independent area of graphic design, which is the most similar to creative art by using means of expression. The large format increases the effectiveness of communication of the poster. Tschichold tried to complete the primary concept by using of the principles of the New Typography, minimalism and whitespace. His posters are organized into vertical and horizontal fields. He often worked with geometrical structure, each element is in plan type, spacing, colour, and even the meaning. In the organization of the elements, meanings are connected. Tschichold s poster designs rank among the finest in the history of graphic design. His background in typography permitted him to achieve preeminence with minimal means while consistently maintaining elegance and a maximum of expression. In the post war period, Tschichold worked for Penguin Books in London (fig. 14, 15, 16). This London s publishing looked for the best typographer and offered designers from Europe. Penguin, The New Typography, in its concern to satisfy the needs of our own period and to make sure that every single piece of printing is in harmony with the present Jan Tschichold (Jong, Purvis, Le Coultre, Doubleday and Reichardt, 2008 : 133) founded in 1935, was the first commercially successful paperback book company in Britain. (Eskilson, 2007 : 314) Penguin Books publisher Allen Lane and the famous English book printer Oliver Simon were suprised by Jan Tschichold s work. Tschichold established a fixed set of typographic standards, the Penguin compositions rules. He installed strict typesetting rules and raised them to the formal level of the printing and publishing. These rules directed attention to next composition, indenting, punctuation marks, spelling, capitals, small capitals, italics, folios, figures, references, footnotes, make up, and the printing plays and poetry. (Jong, Purvis, Le Coultre, Doubleday and Reichardt, 2008 : 269 270) In the few years spent working in London, Tschichold gained much respect and was named an honorary member of the London Double Crown Club, a selective group of English typographers and printers.In 1949 Tschichold felt that his work in Penguin was completed, it was the reason why he returned back to Switzeland. Between 1950 and 1954 he was an independent typographer in Basel. In 1955 Tschichold took a position as typographer at the Hoffmann-La Roche company in Basel. Jan Tschichold died on August 11, 1974, in Locarno, Switzerland. Josef M ller-Brockmann was a Swiss graphic designer. One of the leading graphic and typographic designer since the 1950s. Josef Muller was born on 9 May, 1914, in Rapperswill, Switzerland. His father Christian M ller had a successful career. His company CH. M ller Baugeschaft (building firm), employed dozens of men from Rapperswill and workers from abroad. Unfortunately, Christiann died two yers after his son was born, on 24 August, 1916. Mother of Josef was Ida M ller Shmucki a strong, independent woman. After her husband s death she became a widow at the age of thirty two. She stayed alone with eight children. Josef s talent emerged at the age of fourteen when attending high school. His teacher recognized his natural 25 swiss style  aptitude for drawing. Because of his mother s financial situation, Josef could not study at college. His older brother Paul (firstborn) was sent to university, although he was not as talented as his younger brother. Then Josef continued developing his illustration skills himself. Later an enthusiastic teacher at the Rapperswil Middle School recommended that Muller apply for an apprenticeship as a photographic retoucher. (Purcell, 2006 : 16) Muller spent only one month in a local printer s office than he left. He felt a need to continue with his artistic desires. The period between the world wars strongly influenced M ller s development of art Tschichold s The New Typography and also the work of El Lissitzky or Otto Baumberger. M ller even advocated the opinion that Baumberger was the ingenious, unsurpassed master of large, often monumental, picture language with the minimum of illustrative and chromatic means he was the first and unsurpassed master of the objective informative poster. (Purcell, 2006 : 21) In 1931 M ller became an apprentice to the designer and advertising consultant of Alex Walter Diggelmann at Studio Diggelmann s Zurich offices. Although Josef M ller had the financial problem, in 1932 he was registered as a student at the University of Zurich and at the citys Kunstegewerbeschule. Josef went to the Keller s graphic class to ask him for entrance to the class. Nevertheless, Ernst Keller had a full class and threw him out. M ller was relentless and went to the school every day, and finally Keller allowed him to the course. The young student was delighted at the studies. He was interested in studies of painting, sculpture and design, anatomy, experiments in perpective, and studies of typography. In spite of that he was still unsure about his future direction. At the age of twenty M ller deemed advisable to establish himself, he would need to find a future work. At this time he replied to an offer to work as a designer for Mauser Seeds Ltd. to create a series of shop windows decorations. Josef M ller was convinced that his teachers Ernst Keller and Alfred Willimann strongly influenced him. In the era of World War II Josef M ller continued to work on the projects in Zurich, although he was a member of army. Because of the Switzerland position and its neutrality he was relatively calm. However, influenced by the anxienty about Naciz, influenced by the Swiss population isolated from the rest of the world he began to investigate his work in depth and sought of merits of the case. During this period M ller met the violinist Verena Brock mann, his future wife. Together with her father, Professor Dr. Heinrich Brockmann Jerosch and architect Johann Albert Freytag, he found a system of form and function. The products of graphic design are compromise between form and function, consequently analogous to architecture. The form would follows the function. So graphic design did not have only function to inform but also an education mission to cultivate an everyday life of person. During this period Josef married with Verena, he changed his name to M ller Brockmann. On 8 May 1945, M ller Brockmann, along with the rest of Europe, celebrated the end of war. (Purcell, 2006 : 51) Swiss designers reputedly confused graphic design and advertisement. Despite of the visual communication is closely associated with advertisement. Graphic design and advertisement are components of general questions for common visual communication. In the post war period M ller Brockmann focused on visual identity. For the first time he used advertisement for propagation of Hermes typewriter. Josef M ller Brockmann worked for Hermes for six years. The work for Hermes was influenced by surreal aesthetics as most of his work from this period for example Die Kleine Freiheit (small Munich theatre). As a young person I had no clear perception of my future I only knew that my professional career depended on my energy, self criticism, discipline, and permanent desire to learn. Josef Muller Brockmann (Purcell, 2006 : 11) Afterwards he switched the direction of his work and began to think about constructivism and international language. Nevertheless, instead of abstraction M ller Brockmann used to work with simplicity, geometric forms and to create a harmony of space similar to music. This harmony between art and music he firstly used in commission for the poster for concert of Johann Sebastian Bach in 1950. The same principle was consequently used for Zurich Tonhalle posters. (fig. 23, 25). This transitional style abstract shape or drawn illustration still evoked his influences than the international Swiss style. M ller Brockmann continued with work for Zurich Concert Hall for more than twenty five years. He has modernized his style in 1953 for exhibition poster titled Das Plakat (fig. 24). The commission consists of six posters, each one was a single letter of the exhibition title P , L , A , K , A , T . Each letter was given to different designers such as Hans Falk, Adolf Fl ckiger, and Celestino Piatti. M ller Brockmann made T , he underlined his illustration by using light. The title of the exhibition is in Akzidenz Grotesk typeface, placed in the highlited T. He used capital letters for both words of Das Plakat. Information about the opening times and dates are vertically down the main stroke. M ller Brockmann did not use only illustrations but he exposed these two images (illustrations) in the darkroom, photo its and retouched the protography. In 1952 he designed public signage for the Swiss Automobile Club Accidens Gauge. This Accident Gauge was installed on the Paradeplatz in Zurich, where it warned of the hazards of driving by presenting a numerical summary that highlighted each week s total automobile related accidents and deaths. It was designed and constructed in an abstract three dimensional designs influenced by Russian Constructivistics in the 1920s. (Eskilson S. J. , 2007 : 303) M ller Brockmann made also an excelent use of Akzidenz Grotesk. This typeface is actually appropriate for this kind of advertisement the numerical statistics without emotions. Josef M ller Brockmann also collaborated with Automobile club of Switzerland for a poster design that would refer to padestrians, cyclists and drivers in one traffic (fig. 18, 21). These posters have wonderful use of perspective, the yellow road urge the situation figured at the poster it made it effective. Brockmann worked with E. A. Heiniger on most of the Automob ile Club of Switzerland posters. M ller Brockmann continued to create unconventional designs for them for several years. M ller Brockmann s geniuses grew in and through the years he became a modernist. For the Zurich Concert Hall posters he used all lowercase for the text and geometric abstract forms instead of the illustrations. Beethoven poster (fig.26) for the Zurich Tonhalle represents the epitome of the Swiss style: curves and asymmetry. By the 1950s, he was established as the leading practitioner and theorist of the Swiss Style, which sought a universal graphic expression through a grid-based design purged of extraneous illustration and subjective feeling. His Musica viva (fig. 20, 27) poster series for the Zurich Tonhalle drew on the language of Constructivism to create a visual correlative to the structural harmonies of the music. In 1960 M ller Brockmann designed a typographic poster for exhibition at the Zurich Kunstgewerbemuseum, der Film (fig. 28). It is perharps one of his most celebrated designs. The poster type and space communicate in an inventive and original manner. The grid system is used by typographer, graphic designer, photographer and exhibition designer for solving visual problems in two and three dimensions. (Brockmann, 2001 : 13)34 swiss style One important part of the Swiss Style is its remarkable use of photography. Following the modernist ideas in which photography was a much better tool to portray reality than drawings and illustrations, the Neue grafik magazine, a very important Swiss graphic design publication at the time, dedicated a big part of its content to photography and its application in design. tem. The grid system allowed him to organize his subject matter to create more effective design, not to be overwhelmed by the seeming chaos and complexity of design decisions. The predecessor of this system was Piet Mondrian, the grid is often recognized in his paintings. His compositions are composed of horizontal and vertical lines and rectangular planes. According to M ller Brockmann the grid system is about structure and mathematical thinking. This is the expression of a professional ethos: the designer s work should have the clearly intelligible, objective, functional and aesthetics quality of mathematical thinking. (Brockmann, 2001 : 10) M ller Brockmann was a professor of graphic design at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Zurich from 1957 to 1960. Later he was a design consultant to IBM Europe from 1967 1988. He published various books about his work and won a lot of awards. He is the author of The Graphic Artist and his Design Problems (1961), History of Visual Communication (1981) or A History of the Poster. He also founded the Muller-Brockmann Co advertising agency in 1967, lasting until 1984. The new typography The New Typography came about as a reaction to the communication credos of Modernism which called for designs to be timeless minimal and geometric. The first principles of the New Typography appeared in Merz magazine in 1923. El Lissitzky promoted there more dynamic typography. In his work El Lissitzky pioneered a new approach to typographic art which had a huge impact upon graphic design. Lasl Moholo Nagy supported in addition typophoto, phototext too. At the same time as typophoto, Moholo Nagy introduced the idea of the photograph not only as illustration but, alternatively, as phototext , replacing words, as an unambiguous form of representation, which in its objectivity (Sachlichkeit) leaves no room for personal accidental interpretation. (Hollis, 2006 : 40) In both Lissitzky and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy we see emphasis placed upon the element of expression the expression of content through form. In contrast, Jan Tschichold was more concerned with order and organization. He used sans serif type, asymmetric compositions, the benefits of white space and the limiting of typefaces. Tschichold in his book, earlier mentioned, Die neue Typographie (The New Typography) formulated the basics of these rules and modern visual communication, influenced by functional trend of Bauhaus. Many of these principles of the New Typography are explained in this book. He introduced a theoretical look at typography devoid of concerns for printing practicality. These principles were also presented at the exhibitions in Switzerland, where it came to subconsciousness of audience. It was Tschichold who acted as a guide to a typographic practise which followed the demand for a new unity of art and technology. (Hollis, 2006 : 38) Tschichold advertised in his book a new sans-serif typeface as Akzidenz Grotesk (now known as Helvetica). Tschichold reiterates that clarity is the highest goal and Akzidenz Grot esk has this clarity. This typeface became the 39 swiss style most common for the New Typography and later for Swiss graphic design and the International Style. In fact, when Jan Tschichold wrote Die neue Typographie, he ignored any use of non sans-serif typefaces. With this philosophy, graphic designers were aiming the clarity, simplicity and universality. The Swiss Style advocates that the typeface does not have to be expressive in itself, it must be an unobtrusive instrument of expression. Helvetica was created in 1953 by Miedinger with Eduard Hoffmann at the Haas sche Schriftgiesserei (Haas type foundry) of M nchenstein, Switzerland. Haas designed a new sans-serif typeface that could compete with Akzidenz Grotesk in the Swiss market. Originally called Neue Haas Grotesk, the typefaces name was changed by Haas German parent company Stempel in 1960 to Helvetica derived from Confederatio Helvetica, the Latin name for Switzerland in order to make it more marketable internationally. Helvetica became the most widely used sans-serif typefaces ever. Akzidenz Grotesk was performed by Max Bill and Josef M ller Brockmann throughout their careers. Designer Paul Renner, while designing his typeface Futura, relied heavily on precise drafting tools such as the compass, T-square and the triangle. This allowed Renner to escape the traditional methods of type design in favor of the rigidity of mechanical constructions. Geometrical Futura was the next popular choice for graphic designers. The Swiss typographer Adrian Frutiger was one of the most prominent typeface designers ever mainly because of his famous typeface Univers. He studied calligraphy at the Z rich Kunstgewerbeschule. His interest in sculpture helped construct his style as